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Overview | Constituency of Ulster | The Clan System | Economy & Prosperity | Religious Divisions | The Ulster Lords Rising | The Spanish Invasion | The Flight of the Earls
A defining moment in the history of the British Isles, and no less Ulster, was the Norman (Northern French) invasion of England in 1066. The Norman story begins when the English King Harold fought and defeated an invasion force of Vikings in the North East of England and marched the remnants of his army South to Hastings where he was narrowly defeated by William the Norman who was then crowned King of England. The Normans were much advanced in military and industry but perhaps their most defining feature was the motte and Bailey or stone raised castle which they used for defence and today are still prominent over the landscape of the British Isles.
The Norman Castle at Carrickfergus on the County Antrim coast. In the foreground is King William III who landed at Carrickfergus on his way to victory in battle at the river Boyne in 1690, centuries after this castle was constructed.
The Normans had controlled England and Wales for two centuries before they entered the Irish scene in the 13th century. This period in European and English history is marked by the more advanced feudal system of government, which had not yet reached Ireland. Ireland was governed by various kingdoms, Clans and tribes that had struggled to find a balance of power between each other. The proximity of Ireland and England is close and interaction throughout their human history was common. The Normans likely had close ties to Ireland but their involvement there politically came in the 12th century at the invitation of an Irish chief to the Norman Earl Strongbow. Strongbow was hired with his mercenary army of superior quality to the Irish to bolster the power of the Irish employer. It was this force that became embroiled in the Irish conflicts that introduced the Normans or English as a player in the politics of the Island.
The English importance in Ulster was mainly during the Tudor government, which began in 1485 with the ascendancy of the Welsh pretender who became Henry VII of England. It was the Tudor era that brought much change and made a distinct mark on the shaping of Ireland and Ulster. By the time Henry VIII, Henry VII's successor, was crowned, the Tudors governed a small part of Eastern Ireland around Dublin known as the pale. This had the largest population of English origin however there were very small settlements of English outside this area and a few in Ulster particularly around Norman castles on the coastline. The Tudors were little more than a competing power amongst the many in Ireland at the time, however Henry VIII's dynasty was to usher in the Protestant reformation, which had implications in politics for some time after the initial process. The reformation along with the Roman Catholic reaction and parallel reformations elsewhere was to cause bitter divisions within and between the separate Kingdoms of the British Isles.
Many parts of Europe in this period were undergoing reformation and the authority of the Roman church was questioned. The reformation of Henry VIII at this time however, was regarded initially, less for the purpose of reform on the point of doctrine, but occurred because of a personal dispute of Henry VIII with the church authority. It also gave Henry the opportunity to rule his country as he saw fit and not defer to Rome as the higher religious authority, and offered the opportunity to boost the royal treasury at the expense of finance traditionally claimed by Rome and from church property.
In Ulster church lands were distributed amongst its chiefs much
as they had been sold to the nobles in England. Ulster leaders were offered the
church lands under a system known as; surrender and re-grant, which was intended
to transform the government of the country by the introduction of feudalism. In
Ulster government remained as it had done for centuries and consisted of small
areas under the control of local leaders. The battles and conflict between these
groups had threatened the Tudor areas, which had in turn become embroiled in the
power struggles. The introduction of feudalism encouraged by the Tudors was
intended to extend their power and influence but also to offer stability, which
in turn would protect the Tudor lands.
The old Clan or tribal systems relied on custom, and customs that encouraged dispute, They also placed the subjects of the leaders under their complete control. Feudalism was little different but offered a legal and hierarchical structure, which guaranteed the rights of both the landowner and the tenant and ensured a structured settlement of power disputes and a balance of power between the landholders. The landowners however would be no longer the absolute authority. While they retained autonomy, they were still subject to the Monarch. This system would effectively give Henry VIII control over all of Ulster when it was effective. Persuading the Ulster chiefs to accept the idea was not difficult, as the benefits they were offered were great enough for them to accept the idea.
The replacement of the old system with feudalism: surrender and re-grant meant that the local leaders would voluntarily donate their lands to Henry VIII but control them much as they did before except under the new system with added stability. In accepting this they were offered status and titles which gave them power throughout Henry's kingdom (effectively England, Wales and Ireland), and additionally enhanced prestige abroad. The title it appears were given liberally and most traveled to London to have them personally bestowed by the King. The largest leader in Ulster, who was regarded as the most powerful by the other leaders and the King alike, was Con Bachach O'Neill of the clan O'Neill. He was created the 1st Earl of Tyrone. Perhaps the best part of the bargain for the new Lords was their grant of church lands. That they were benefiting from the misfortune of the Roman church to which they paid homage, was not in question, as it had not been with their Roman Catholic counterparts in England when such valuable property had been placed on the market.
The transition to feudalism did not run altogether smoothly. The newly created Lords were happy to receive the benefits they were given but in the event they did not live up to their part of the bargain. The old customs and infighting of the Clan system remained and were played out in full to the expense of development and at the cost of continued war. The system of clans and the constituency of the country in general are not easy to analyse, but to do so helps to understand the make up, culture and rivalries of the land in the period.
Armagh Cathedral, the centre of Ulster in the Medieval period.
What Ulster is, i.e. its geographical and political makeup, will be disputed by
historians from period to period and according to different criteria. Terminology in
Ulster today is confused and often there are overlaps and unclear distinctions,
in history there was no exception. The proximity of the two main British Isles
had meant a close interaction and migration of the respective peoples down
through the years. The Scots originally were from the North of the Irish island
and were to some extent early intruders to the Scottish mainland they made their
home. The Scots did not move to Scotland en masse but are believed to have been
largely eliminated from the north of the island by the 4th century
when Gaelic incursions had mastered the most of the island. The proximity of
Scotland and Ulster however has made modern demarcations along later
nationalistic lines largely irrelevant. The two groups both Gaelic and Scoti
were prevalent in both Ulster and Western Scotland throughout the history of
those peoples. To put it in context travel across the short channel between the
two lands was until recently, much easier, and more accessible than inland
travel in either of the two densely wooded regions. In the 16th
century the Scots in Ulster were inadvertently bolstered by disputes between the
Gaelic Clans. Scots mercenary soldiers were often employed and formed the bulk
of many armies. They had the reputation of superior soldiers and were not averse
to the Ulster climate, as other mercenaries may have been.
The Scots are largely overlooked in conventional histories of Ulster and the ebb and flow and lack of stability in their presence also ensures an analysis of them is difficult. Scots influence in Ulster however, had always been strong as Roman Catholic ecclesiastic records demonstrate. Many bishops were recorded as having been appointed to the Scoti people at the early Cathedral, which still stands at Armagh. For periods in the medieval era Ulster and parts of Scotland were ruled as one and Scottish Kings involved themselves in Ulster affairs and invasions during the early period. Understanding the Scottish, Irish and English relations in Ulster are crucial to understanding the relations and makeup of the country in the 16th century period in question.
The two largest Gaelic groups in Ulster were the O'Neill's under the Earl of Tyrone and the O'Donnell's of Tyrconnell; an area closely resembling the modern county Donegal. There were in addition to this, numerous other smaller Lords and leaders. The Scots Ulster clans were situated in the North East of Ulster with the largest; the McDonnell's belonging to North Antrim. There were some small settlements outside the clan system that were English in past origin although their numbers were sparse.
Modern divisions along nationalistic lines are largely
irrelevant when defining exactly what Ulster is. Modern nationalisms may provide
help in analysing the development of culture and societies of the different
groups in Ulster, but in terms of 16th century politics, or in
helping to define a distinct territorial area, they offer no aid or
significance. Clan rule by its nature, meant power alliances, land struggles and
jealousies as opposed to the relatively recent abstract of nationalistic
determination. In terms of drawing a border around Ulster; some historians have
defined it from the Bronze Age to the medieval period the territory of the
Scoti. This analysis may carry a great deal of weight, however the formal
identification of an area known as Ulster was under the administrative region created by the government of the Tudor
Elizabeth I in the early years of the 17th century.
The clan system and the traditions of Ulster
A lack of stable government presented an almost permanent conflict situation in Ulster; cattle raiding, pillaging and plunder was common place and were a means to extract power in a situation with no clear authority. The barbarity that was practiced by the troops of all the sides was notable, and killing, retribution and retaliation occurred, as the historian Falls described; 'at a level where human life was regarded as a lesser value than animals.' There were of course exceptions as Falls, a military historian, points out. Falls singles out in particular, the 2nd Earl of Tyrone who was renowned for his humanity, yet with closer examination he was responsible for a catalogue of brutal acts. Nor were the Tudors able to prevent these acts. The Queen (Queen Elizabeth I succeeded her father to the throne after a few years government by her brother and sister) sent many viceroys (representatives) to Ireland, whose time was largely taken up with Ulster. None appear to have had an admirable record, and seemed unable or unwilling to apply law. More often than not they joined the power struggles resulting in a litany of stained records of their own. Few lasted very long in their posts.
One of the problems of the clan system in Ulster was the practise of tanistry. This was a system, unlike the popular feudal tradition of primogeniture where titles and land were passed from father to the eldest son. Tanistry was a system whereby a clan leader would appoint his successor prior to his death. This in itself created internal clan conflict and assassinations of tanists (the appointed), by fellow clansmen or rival clansmen who preferred a more favourable leader to them, were widespread. To illustrate this point it can be noted that the most powerful tanist in Ulster: Hugh O'Neill, who became the 2nd Earl of Tyrone had lived under the protection of the English garrison for a number of years to ensure he would live to see his succession.
It is hard to look at the turmoil of the political situation and not overlook the admirable prosperity of Ulster. It would be wrong however to over dramatise prosperity, good as it had been, especially as the wars of the early 17th century had destroyed the population of the country and laid waste the landscape. Perhaps this section would be better described as; the potential prosperity, which may have been achieved and improved had the land at this time been developed to contemporary standards.
Ulster generally was thriving and could be thankful that it was
the most naturally rich part of its island. Even by the standards of the time
however those resources were not fully developed and the land was sparsely populated, with few permanent
settlements. The landscape was thick with woodland although the destruction of
this was well underway by this time. Cattle farming was the predominant
occupation, although practised by a policy of cutting woodland for pasture, then
moving to new land when its soil was exhausted. Farming methods were for the
time primitive also. The ploughing method for example, was a means by which the
farm tool was fixed to the cattle's tail. This was regarded as cruel by mainland
contemporaries, in addition it was time consuming and unproductive. The methods
fell well short of the European 16th century equivalent, which was
co-operative and in comparison experimental and developing community based
farming.
Apart from the few small towns around areas such as Armagh's
Cathedral, or Carrickfergus Norman castle there was no real permanence in
settlement. Some of the more prominent Lords (the now titled Clan leaders) had
small stone castles. The lesser leaders boasted a stone keep for defence. It is
unlikely that they would have lived permanently in the keep however and would
have dwelled in round
wooden houses similar to those of their people constructed
with wattle and daub (wooden rods and turf and mud). For the small population,
food, especially in peacetime would have been plentiful and the natural richness
of the country particularly in fish endowed even the poorest with the luxury of
Spanish wine to wash down their food. Trade was active with many countries but
in particular Spain, where in return for wine, fish was the main export,
extracted from Ulster's Loughs, which were said to have been teeming with them.
The dress of the people followed much the same pattern of the rest of the Isles;
predominant were tight trousers and thick tops. Unique among the Ulster Clans
however was a thick animal skin draped impressively around the body as a cloak
and was ideal for rough sleeping in the rough winter climate.
Life was harsh and primitive although when audited as it has been above, the stone keeps, the dense wooded landscape, the fish stocked rivers, ample foreign luxuries and impressive dress codes sound very romantic. Romantic as it sounds however, the people were not secure and were kept at the behest of their leader and were the victims of the enemies he accounted. Not only were they physically assaulted, robbed and in cases exterminated in numbers, they were responsible for bearing the costs of their leader and his battles, which was often crippling. Brehon law was a body of custom, which governed the operation of the Clan system, it carried three main obligations, which were stifling to the population and were invoked frequently in the conflict that ensued in Ulster. The first can be summed up as, coyne: the right of a leader to extract food and rations from his people for his army and his retinue. The second, livery: The right to extract forage for horses. The third then is bonaght, and was the right to extract pay for the military and arbitrary taxation for the leader and the army.
The religion of the Ulster people, be they of English, Scots or
Irish origin was Roman Catholic. The Protestant reformation in England and the
parallel reformation in the Kingdom of Scotland had little impact on any part of
Ireland at this time. The translation of biblical scripts and service meant
little to the Ulster population who spoke a version of
Gaelic at this time and the English literature was as alien to them as the
traditional Latin of the Roman Catholic Church. The attempts to introduce
Anglican Protestantism to Ireland was belated and half-hearted, in contrast the
Roman Catholic Church swamped the country in travelling missionaries and friars.
The Roman Catholic clergy including the archbishop of Armagh and primate of all
Ireland remained uninhibited in their post although the archbishop had held his
position while preferring to keep his office, as he had done previously, in the
comfort of Rome.
Religion is crucial to understanding the power struggles that emerged in this period. The conflicts and power balance politics in Ulster shifted stage and were gradually usurped by religion to become, albeit more gradually, a mirror and more crucially a lever, of the much wider religious conflict occurring across Europe. England's first concern during its reformation was protection against parallel reformation and counter-reformation, which were taking place on its northern border in Scotland. Scotland had a key interest in Ulster, not least as a result of its relatively large populace there, which could have proved a threat if it supported any military action Scotland may have taken against England. So close were the ties between the Scots on both sides of the channel, that beacons were lit on the country coastlines as a communications system between them, which could have been used to summon reinforcements. It was crucial then for England to neutralise that threat and for this reason the first plantation of Ulster was effected by the Tudor government on the Scottish controlled lands of County's Antrim and Down, effectively excluding the Scots from Ulster. An Irish and English alliance to neutralise the Scottish in Ulster however was not new and memories may still have been fresh and strong of an extermination of the entire population of Rathlin island, which was inhabited by Scots, in 1553.
Less severe measures were employed on this occasion however and the Scots were encouraged to move by negotiations between 1568 and 1571. In order to pacify the country and secure it as an Anglican stronghold, Elizabeth granted the two Counties to the Earl of Essex who was to settle the land and develop it. An emphasis was placed on his retaining a strong Anglican sympathy to neutralise any thoughts of religious discontent, which would have joined England's enemies and thus threaten its security by using Ulster as a springboard to achieve that aim. That plantation like all those that had went before it in the South of Ireland was a failure and in any case the Scots were back and settled on the land they had left by 1572.
The European theatre and the wars of religion were to shape the
next distinctive chapter in the history of Ulster. Key to the period was the
most powerful Ulster Lord: Hugh O'Neill had been created the 2nd Earl
of Tyrone on the death of his grandfather Con Bachach. He had proved, as was
previously mentioned, a humane character in a difficult age and had closely
worked with the English and supplied his troops at their disposal. He
did however an ambitious interest in his position and favoured those who could
assist him to improve it. The opportunity for him to play a further card in the
power game emerged from the wars of religion. England's reformation had not been
viewed lightly by the Roman Catholic hierarchy and attempts to ensure a
successful counter-reformation by the church were expected. Spain was the most
powerful Roman Catholic power in Europe and had been the dominion of Charles V
the Holy Roman Emperor who had exercised the secular muscle of the Roman church.
A nightmare scenario for England would have been a Spanish invasion
consolidating its forces in Ireland and combining as an invasion force with the
Irish Roman Catholics.
England's fears appeared to be realised when a Spanish invasion fleet was first spotted from the South Coast. A network of hilltop beacons in Southern England was organised to relay and pass news of the anticipated invasion to the ill-prepared army and London. The Spanish Armada with 20 000 troops did reach Ireland but the weather was against them and the fleet was entirely destroyed on the ragged coastline of cliffs and jagged rock. There were few survivors and those that did make it were in no shape to fight but instead made their way to Scotland and returned to Spain.
It is believed to have been around this time that Hugh O'Neill developed the concept of an entirely Roman Catholic Irish island in which he would play the dominant part. Partly as a result of this new concept closer links between Ireland and Spain were established and it was regarded, as only a matter of time before another invasion force would try again. The Spanish force came and landed at Kinsale on the South coast of Ireland. The Ulster Chief O'Donnell set out immediately to meet the force but finding himself alone in the task set about raiding, plundering and burning the Kilkenny area in search of spoil. The Spanish in the meantime were besieged in Kinsale by the Royal army. Hugh O'Neill was not yet committed or sure of his new ideals and prevaricated for 4 months before moving to meet the Spanish troops. By this time the Spanish had sent a second fleet, which landed further west. It suffered much the same fate as the first Armada and five out of six vessels were lost.
The failure of the Spanish Invasion
O'Neill, O'Donnell and the remainder of the Spanish fleet closed
in on the Royal army outside Kinsale, in effect besieging the those who were
besieging the initial Spanish invasion force. In communication with the besieged
Spanish they decided to mount a simultaneous attack on both sides of the Royal
army. Many an Irish plan was spoiled by drink and treachery wrote Falls but the
failure of this attack on the fledging Royal army must be a classic. The story
goes that O'Donnell's camp was short of alcoholic drink on night before the
attack and a messenger was sent to the Royal camp to procure some. As
O’Donnell’s troops had been given to serve in the Royal army and the officers in
both armies had friendships and contacts, the drink was duly given. In thankful
gratitude the benevolent officer in the Royal army was notified of the impending
attack as a means of payment. The Royal army prepared for the attack, but none
came, the Spaniards waited patiently but the armies of Tyrone and O'Donnell had
become divided and lost on their way to the battlefield. The Royal army seizing the
situation caught both unawares, destroyed their armies and captured their
troops.
The Lords themselves were captured and returned to London to surrender to the new King; James VI of England. The new King had been James I of Scotland but he had in addition to the Scottish throne inherited the throne of England also. His reign is noted as the uniting of both the Kingdoms of; Scotland and England, Wales and Ireland, and the beginning of government by the house of Stuart. In a shock move the Ulster Lords were not humiliated in their surrender but were received instead in the spirit of friendship and were re-granted their lands and titles in the same manner they had before the revolt.
The Lords did not return immediately to Ulster, Tyrone in particular stayed for some time at the Royal Palace of Hampton Court. When they did return however it was to a pitiful scene. The pressure and the cost of the war had created widespread famine. The country was desolate and was depopulated as most had moved South in search of food. Fynes Moryson, who accounts one incident, of older women who enticed children to their company and ate of their flesh, captured the desperation of the situation. The grim situation did little to entice the Lords back to their homes. In any case the political situation itself had changed, O’Donnell had found himself upstaged by a rival Neill Garve who had consolidated himself in O'Donnell’s absence. Thoughts of revolt still burned in the Lords minds however and while Tyrone stayed at Hampton court in England it was recorded how he developed regular secret meetings with Roman Catholic revolutionaries and in particular one notorious Priest of the Society of Jesus. Any thoughts of revolt given the state of Ulster at the time must have seemed impossible or at least impractical but the notion still appears to have rested at least in Tyrone’s mind. The impracticability of conflict at this time is seen in Ulster’s recorded peacefulness, the most peaceful state it had been for some time according to the memories of contemporaries. Despite their own impotency for conflict at the time however some of the Ulster Lords as has already been noted in the conspiracy liaisons of Tyrone were looking to other quarters to effect their revolt.
A selection of the Ulster Lords including Tyrone and Tyrconnell (formerly O’Donnell) who still held a desire for revolt, left Lough Swilly in Tyrconnell and sailed to Spain in an attempt to encourage a further Spanish invasion and to pledge their support for it. They were not welcomed as they had wished however and traveled across Europe courting support from many Roman Catholic powers on mainland Europe. In the final event they were believed to have settled in Rome, but they had in the meantime left behind Ulster and abandoned the lands they had claim to.
